Why peace looks a long way off in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict

At the end of September, conflict erupted between forces fighting for Armenia and Azerbaijan, reviving a decades-old dispute over the region of Nagorno-Karabakh. Armine Ishkanian argues that while it remains to be seen if a diplomatic solution can be found, there seems little prospect of peace emerging in the short-term.

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In the early morning of 27 September, Azerbaijan launched large-scale military operations along the entire line of contact (approximately 180 km) of Nagorno-Karabakh, an unrecognised state in the South Caucasus with a population of about 150,000 people. A week on, this is now an all-out war which involves numerous parties, including Armenia, Azerbaijan, Nagorno Karabakh, and Turkey. Armenians are vastly outnumbered both in terms of population size (Armenia has a population of 3 million, compared to 10 million in Azerbaijan and 80 million in Turkey) and military strength.

In this blog, I consider the conflict from the perspective of the political dimension in Armenia and examine the historical and contemporary factors which shape Armenians’ attitudes, perceptions, and responses to the conflict. These perceptions have implications for the resolution of the conflict and the prospects for peace in the region.

Nikol Pashinyan, Prime Minister of Armenia, Credit: European Council

A brief history

The indigenous Armenian population has lived in Karabakh for millennia. Shortly after the establishment of the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin included the territory of Karabakh, with its majority ethnic Armenian population, in the Soviet Socialist Republic of Azerbaijan. As such, it came to be known as the Nagorno Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (administrative division).

In 1988, responding to the political liberalisation initiated by General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev, the Armenians of Karabakh began a movement to have the oblast transferred to the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic. This move was supported by the Armenia SSR and opposed by the Azerbaijan SSR, leading to pogroms against Armenians in the cities of Sumgait and Baku. All attempts to resolve the matter within the framework of the Soviet Union failed.

On 10 December 1991, a referendum on the Independence of the Nagorno Karabakh Republic took place in which 108,736 registered voters (82.2% of the total) voted for independence. When Azerbaijan refused to honour the result of the referendum, a war ensued which left 30,000 people dead. The war ended in a ceasefire in 1994 and since then, Azerbaijan has demanded the return of Karabakh claiming territorial integrity, while Armenians have demanded their right to self-determination. Negotiations under the auspices of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Minsk Group, which France, Russia, and the US co-chair, have failed to achieve a durable peace.

Today, Turkey’s direct participation in the current conflict is further complicating an already complex situation. Moreover, there is growing evidence from a number of international news outlets that Turkey has facilitated the movement of jihadist mercenaries from Syria to the region to take part in military operations against the Armenian side, creating concerns that the South Caucasus will become another theatre of operations for international terrorism.

The impact of Armenia’s 2018 Velvet Revolution

On 31 March 2018 now Prime Minister of Armenia, Nikol Pashinyan, began a protest march which would become the Velvet Revolution. On 23 April, then PM Serzh Sargsyan resigned from office and the corrupt and authoritarian Republican Party of Armenia was in disarray. The Velvet Revolution was not only a political revolution, but also a revolution of values. Today, the impact of the Velvet Revolution on Armenians’ attitudes is undeniable.

The success of the revolution and the overthrow of the corrupt regime gave Armenians a deep sense of confidence and belief in their ability to affect change. The revolution’s slogan, “With Courage” (Duxov), strongly reverberates today. There is a determination among Armenians to protect the democracy they fought so hard to achieve. Armenians, both in Armenia and Karabakh, view this war as one for freedom, independence, self-determination, and ultimately, sheer survival.

Memories of genocide

Apart from the impact of the Velvet Revolution, the memories of the 1915 genocide of the Armenians in the Ottoman Empire are also shaping attitudes today. The genocide has had a lasting impact on the consciousness of Armenians around the globe. It is a collective trauma which inspires feelings of existential threat.

The Turkish Government’s continued denial of and refusal to recognise the genocide, its active support for Azerbaijan in this war, coupled with Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erodgan’s imperialist, neo-Ottomanist ideology and his criticisms of the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne that established the borders of modern Turkey, fuel fears among Armenians. These fears are widely shared and are reflected in Armenian PM Pashinyan’s following statement in which he accuses Turkey of “continuing its genocidal policy towards the Armenians” and adds that, “…this is an existential threat for us, and there is nothing else to do but to defend ourselves.”

Armenians living in Turkey, including MP Garo Paylan and the civil society group Nor Zartonk, have called for peace and expressed concerns that Turkey’s involvement in the war is leading to intimidation and hate speech towards them.

Democracy or dictatorship?

In contrast to Armenia’s democracy, Azerbaijan is an authoritarian state that has been ruled by members of one family for nearly three decades. Heydar Aliyev was president of Azerbaijan from 1993 until his death in 2003, after which his son, Ilham, became President and has held that post ever since. His wife, Mehriban, is Vice President. According to the Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project, the Aliyev family has taken large shares in lucrative industries including the telecom, minerals and construction industries often through government related deals. The 2020 Freedom House report describes Azerbaijan as an authoritarian regime where corruption is rampant and the formal political opposition parties and civil society have been weakened by years of persecution.

Karabakh Armenians have expressed their resolve and made it clear that they will never consent to live under Aliyev’s authoritarian regime. Furthermore, there has been too much bloodshed and the promotion of anti-Armenian propaganda by Azerbaijani leaders for them to feel safe in Azerbaijan. These factors cannot be ignored if peace is to be established.

This war will only spread suffering and destabilise the South Caucasus and the wider, already troubled, region. It remains to be seen if a diplomatic solution to the war can be found. A durable and lasting peace is of utmost importance, but it should not come at the price of the safety and security of Karabakh Armenians. The OSCE Minsk Group have called on the leaders of Armenia and Azerbaijan to “commit without delay to resuming substantive negotiations, in good faith and without preconditions.” But sadly, the outlook for a peace at present is grim.

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This article has orginally posted on the LSE website and is cross-posted with the author’s permission

ARTSAKH / NAGORNO-KARABAKH: A BRIEF HISTORY | Part 2

Read Part 1 here

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Following the Russian Revolution and the emergence of independent republics of Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia in South Caucasus in 1918, Artsakh with its majority Armenian population was briefly occupied by the Ottoman Turkish forces who ordered the Armenians to submit to the rule of the new Azerbaijani government whom the Turks viewed as their ethnic allies. The Turkish troops withdrew at the end of World War I and were quickly replaced by the British. The latter, acceding to the demands of sovereignty over Artsakh by the nascent Republic of Azerbaijan, approved the appointment of an ethnic Azerbaijani as the governor-general of Artsakh, pending a decision on the status of the region at the Paris Peace Conference. British support for the Azerbaijani control of Artsakh further reinforced Tsarist Russia’s administrative separation of this region in spite of its Armenian majority (89% according to the first Soviet census of 1926) from the rest of Armenian-populated areas to the west.

The Armenian National Council of Artsakh rejected the sovereignty of Azerbaijan over the territory, demanding the right of self-determination. A provisional agreement in August 1919 between the Council and the Azerbaijani authorities granted local autonomy to the Armenians who in turn agreed to conditional Azerbaijani jurisdiction over the territory. Frequent violations of this agreement by Azerbaijan resulted in a failed Armenian revolt in March 1920. In retribution, the Azerbaijani forces sacked the capital Shushi, massacring the Armenian population in their thousands and burning the Armenian quarters of the city.

With the step-by-step sovietisation of the three republics in South Caucasus between 1920 and 1921, Artsakh remained within the borders of Soviet Azerbaijan until the thaw in the Soviet Union instigated by the reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev. In February 1988, a mass demonstration in Stepanakert, the capital of Nagorno-Karabakh, demanded the unification of the region with Soviet Armenia. In Azerbaijan the reaction to this mass protest was swift: late in the same month mobs in the industrial town of Sumgait attacked ethnic Armenians in their homes and in streets, ransacking and burning homes, raping and murdering for full twenty-four hours before the Soviet forces intervened.  In the post-Soviet power vacuum the conflict between the two republics of Armenia and Azerbaijan over Artsakh escalated into an all-out war resulting in thousands of casualties and massive movements of refugees on both sides. A fragile ceasefire was reached in 1994, leaving Armenians in control of Artsakh and occupying territories between the region and the Republic of Armenia and in the lowlands to the east. The ceasefire resulted in the de facto independence of Artsakh with close, intertwined relations with Armenia. Despite international efforts of mediation to reach a peace settlement in the region, skirmishes have continued to a higher and lesser degree along the line of ceasefire, erupting into a full-fledged war on Sunday, 27 September 2020.

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By Gagik Stepan-Sarkissian

ARTSAKH / NAGORNO-KARABAKH: A BRIEF HISTORY | Part 1

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This region of historic Armenia which is at the epicentre of the current war raging in South Caucasus has a long history.  In Urartian inscriptions (9th to 6th centuries BCE) it appears as the toponyms Ardakh, Urdekhe and Atakhuni. The Greek geographer Strabo (c. 63 BCE-c. 23 CE) calls the region Orchistenê, a province of Armenia which furnishes large bodies of cavalry. In fact, the Artsakh cavalry took a prominent part at the Battle of Avarayr against  Sasanian Persia in 451 CE. After the fall of Urartu, Artsakh is mentioned as the 10th province of Greater Armenia which emerged as a state on the Armenian Highlands from the 2nd century BCE. The first bishop of Artsakh was Grigoris, the grandson of St Gregory the Illuminator. He played an important role in the Christianisation of Artsakh, the adjoining province of Utik and the neighbouring country of Caucasian Albania, the territory of which corresponds to the modern Republic of Azerbaijan. The present-day monastery of Amaras in Artsakh marks the burial place of Grigoris who died a martyr. Mesrop Mashtots, the inventor of the Armenian alphabet, founded one of the first Armenian schools in Artsakh to educate the children of the province and through them help establish the new religion of Christianity more firmly in the region.

After the demise of the Armenian Arsacid kingdom in the 5th century, Artsakh became part of the Persian marzpanate (border province) of Albania and suffered the invasion of the Khazars from the north before falling under Arab rule in the 7th century. Artsakh regained a semi-autonomous status under the Bagratuni kings of Armenia (9th to 11th centuries) forming the vassal kingdom of Khachen. From the beginning of the 11th century the region increasingly became known as Khachen and Artsakh ceased to be known as a distinct administrative region; it survived as a mere geographical toponym until the Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh officially renamed the state Artsakh in 2017. The Middle Ages saw a flourishing of arts and spirituality with the founding of various monasteries and scriptoria, producing a great variety of manuscripts with a distinct regional style of book illumination.

In the early 11th century the invasion of Seljuk Turks resulted in the first settlements of Turkish tribes in the lowlands of eastern Artsakh. Over a century later, the Mongol invasion of Armenia put an end to the semi-independent status of Khachen, culminating in the devastating conquest of the region by Tamerlane in the late 14th century. There followed the domination by White Sheep and Black Sheep Turkomans which resulted in further fragmentation of the Armenian princedom of Khachen into smaller administrative units known as melikdoms ruled by a hereditary melik. From the late 14th century onwards, the region became known as Karabagh (from Turkish ‘kara’, meaning either ‘black’ or ‘big’ and Persian ‘bagh’, meaning ‘garden’), a name that has survived to the 21st century in all regional languages, including Armenian, and also in the Soviet Russian name for the autonomous region of Nagorno-Karabakh (mountainous Karabagh).

From the end of the 16th century to the beginning of the 19th century the melikdoms in the mountainous regions of Artsakh and the adjoining Armenian province of Syunik led a semi-independent existence, mostly under the suzerainty of Persian shahs. The Russian Empire, expanding southwards under Tsar Alexander I, annexed the territory of Artsakh in 1805. Thereafter, the region was incorporated in the newly created province of Elizavetpol. The Armenian regions to the west of Artsakh, namely Yerevan and Nakhichevan, were annexed by the Russians some 20 years later and formed part of the sort-lived Armenian Province, later morphed into the Erivan Governorate. In placing East Armenia and Artsakh in different imperial provinces in the early 19th century, the Russian colonial administrators thus wittingly or unwittingly sowed the seeds of future problems in the region.

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By Gagik Stepan-Sarkissian, AI librarian and research advisor

Digitising Surmelian

Our Eastern Armenian language class was coming to a close for the evening and Nelli asked, “Are there any books that you could recommend about the Armenian Genocide?”. Our teacher, Gagik answered that one of the best is Leon Surmelian’s I Ask You, Ladies and Gentlemen, a memoir of a young boy living through the times of the Armenian Genocide. It was a bestseller when it was first published in 1945, but had not been republished since 1946. However! The Armenian Institute had a plan to republish it. This plan involved a number of volunteers each being given a chapter of the book and typing it up.

“Have you considered OCR?”, I asked.

The first OCR, or Optical Character Recognition device was invented in 1870, with many subsequent devices for assisting the visually impaired, and converting text to telegraph codes. However, it’s safe to say that OCR in its more modern form has been around since the 1970s, scanning printed text and converting it to digital form. With technological advances since the 1970s, it should be pretty good by now, wouldn’t you think?

After a little test, I found myself with the 1946 British publication and a scanner, in the Armenian Institute office under the Gulbenkian Hall, next to the beautiful St Sarkis church. Some hours later, I had scans of all 224 pages.

That looks pretty good to me, but I’m not a computer.

It turns out that computers are not as good as I thought at reading printed text. The text on opposing pages and the angle of the text was confusing the computer. But with a little bit of work cleaning the images, I got this.

That’s better! It captured the text nicely. But we’re still seeing a few oddities. You can see that where a word was broken across two lines, in the case of “mem-bers”, it could become two words. It even saw a space in the middle of “arrested”. These kinds of issues are common with older fonts. Modern OCR performs much better with modern computer fonts.

But I was pleased with the results. As you can see from the screenshots, my word processor was highlighting misspelled words, so it was quick to go through the book and fix those. You might have noticed that there were a number of spaces before punctuation marks such as commas and full-stops. Again, a word processor is pretty good at searching for all instances of spaces before punctuation.

That spellchecking even helped me to spot a number of misspellings in the original book.

When reprinting a book, there is a desire to remain true to the original text. However, it’s safe to say that blatant misspellings such as those above, were not the intention of the author. This brought me into a more grey area of reprinting a book. It became obvious to me that the English language has changed quite a lot since 1946. One of the common changes that occurs in English is that where two words are often found together, they become hyphenated. And after that they often become one word. 

When reading Shakespeare, I expect many differences in linguistic style, so some archaic spellings are expected. However, in a modern text such as this, such archaic spellings can be jarring and can distract the reader from the story being told. This leads us to consider what should be kept in “period” language, and what should be updated to enable a more readable text. Does that original spelling add anything to the text, or does it just make it feel dated or more difficult to read?

Similarly, some words are spelled differently these days:

In English-speaking countries, we would now say “Ramadan”, not “Ramazan”. Is there a benefit to using Surmelian’s spelling? It is presumably, based on the pronunciation that he was familiar with as a child. But at the same time, “Ramazan” could confuse a reader.

What do you think? Do you feel that the 1946 spellings are important? Or do you feel that they might distract, or prevent acceptance amongst new readers? I would love to hear your thoughts.

Another spelling issue worth noting is that the book that I scanned was a 1946 British printing. This had a benefit in that Surmelian had some time to make small edits to his text since the first edition. Unfortunately, as you might expect, it also meant that British English spellings were used. For example, “harbor” had been changed to “harbour”, and “color” to “colour”.

In reprinting this book, we felt that it was important to make use of American English spellings, as that was the chosen language of the author.

One of the trickier spelling mistakes to spot is where a word is a real word, but should be spelled differently. A word processor will not help spot these. The phrase “taught like tightly drawn copper wires” should have used the word “taut”, not “taught”.

Among these, I’m particularly fond of “Benediction cassock“. I suspect that Surmelian wrote this correctly — after all, he spent time living with monks — , but that a copy editor didn’t recognise the word “Benedictine” and “corrected” it.

All these little challenges were a lot of fun to work through, and there was still proofreading to do. I generated PDFs of the book and these were shared around Armenian Institute staff and volunteers. While the team read the book and sent any errors they found, I was at last able to read it for pure enjoyment. And I have to say that I did enjoy reading it.

Now the book is available again in print and as an ebook. So please read it yourself, enjoy it, and if you find any errors, I would love to hear about them.

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By Stephen Masters

Frik – Protest | Գանգատ

Frik (c. 1230 - c. 1310) was a prominent medieval Armenian poet. The little we know about his life has reached us through indirect allusions in his poetry. He was born into a well-to-do family but became bankrupt through injudicious business partnerships with people who supplied the invading Mongol army with provisions. Love and joy pervaded his early poetry, but after his reversal of fortune his poetry tackled social issues and inequalities, sometimes calling God to account. Many people have tried – all unconvincingly - to explain this poet’s unusual name or the names of his father (Tagvosh) and paternal uncle (Dodona). In the early 13th century, the letter ‘f’ was a relatively recent addition to the Armenian alphabet and ‘Frik’ was one of the first recorded personal names containing this letter and its associated sound which had been absent in Armenian until the 11th century. 

Below is an excerpt from a long poem by Frik entitled “Protest”. The translation is by Diana Der Hovanessian and Marzbed Margossian (Anthology of Armenian Poetry, New York: Columbia University Press, 1978).

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Աստուած արդար և յիրաւի,

Եւ ողորմած յամենայնի.

Հանդէս ունիմ բան մի վիճի,

Թէ դու լսես քո ծառայի:

Just and truthful God,

compassionate to all,

I wish to protest,

if you will listen to your servant.

Այս է զարմանք հիանալի,

Որ կու լինի վերայ երկրի.

Եւ հիացումն ազգի ազգի,

զՈր տեսանեմք ի յաշխարհի:

There are too many paradoxes,

too much to ponder

on your earth,

too much to wonder at.

Գէմ մէկ Ադամ էր ի դրախտին,

Եւ մէկն Եւայ իւր նմանին.

Եւ մէկ բարբառ համազգային,

Մինչև կերեալ պտղոյ ծառին:

Արդ այս բանս է հիանալի,

Եւ առաւել զարմանալի.

Թէ մէկ Ադամ և յԵւայէ

Ո՞րքան ազգեր ծնան յերկրի:

From one Adam and one single Eve,

who spoke one common language,

when the fruit of Eden was eaten, came

so many nations unfriendly to each other.

So many tongues. How astonishing!

Տէ'ր, ոչ խնդրես վըրէժ յայտնի,

Եւ ոչ ցուցանես ակն ամենի.

Գիտես մարմինք եմ մըսեղի

Գեմ արձան չեմք զինչ պըղընձի:

Why do you forgive some, and forgive our grief?

Lord, you do not ask for the obvious vengeance.

And you do not stop the stride of evil

You know we are bodies made of flesh, not of iron.

Մէկն ի պապանց պարոնորդի,

Մէկն ի հարանց մուրող լինի.

Մէկին հազար ձի ու ջորի,

Մէկին ո'չ ուլ մի, ո'չ մաքի:

Here, a prince by birth,

there, a beggar from the start.

A thousand horses and mules for one to drive;

and the other without a single goat.

Մէկին հազար կապիճ ոսկի,

Մէկին ո'չ փող մի պըղընձի.

Մէկին հազար հատ մարգարտի,

Մէկին ո'չ հո'ւլնիկ ապիկի:

This man with boxes of coins,

that one without a copper cent.

One, with strings of pearls, 

another, without a glass marble.

Զդաւվլաթն համէ` թէ ո՞ւր լինի,

Եւ զբաղդն ցոյց թէ ո՞ւր գըտւի,

Որ ի շուրջ գամ տասըն տարի,

Եթէ շալակ մ'ինձ հանդիպի:

Who doles out authority and power?

Where is luck found?

I will walk ten years for a drop.

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By Gagik Stepan-Sarkissian

Women of the Epic: It all began with a young woman…

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Dvozinar drank from a ‘milk fountain’ - a special mountain spring - and miraculously conceived twin giant sons who founded, built and ruled the Kingdom of Sassoun.

I started telling episodes from Sassountsit Tavit about 25 years ago. 

It was the character Khandout Khatoun that drew me into this hearty, earthy, wondrous world of giant rulers of Sassoun.

Khandout Khatoun is a warrior princess – daughter of the King of Tabriz – who is big, strong and gorgeous.  The perfect match for Tavit – the large lisping, clumsy orphan who learns through his mistakes.  They share the fact that they don’t know their own strength.  And, finally, they find their equal – in each other!

The women in this epic call their husbands to them.  They rule as equals and own their distinct power as women.

After working on the episode of Khandout Khatoun I turned to the previous generation – Tavit’s parents – Medz Mher and Armaghan.  Armaghan is a beautiful character – brave, strong and firm.

I am looking forward to telling this epic which traditionally emphasises the ‘strong male hero’, through the female line, focusing on the episodes that revolve around the wise, wilful wonderful women.

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By storyteller Vergine Gulbenkian

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One Day the Hodja

Many of us grew up hearing Hodja stories being told – to illustrate, to instruct, to entertain – so many possibilities, usually all together. In equal parts silly and wise, Nasreddin Hodja was a popular figure in the Middle East, shared by all the people. Here is just one example.

One day the Hodja needed a large pot and borrowed it from his neighbour. When he was finished, he returned it but the neighbour was surprised to find a small pot inside the large one. “What is this, Hodja,” he asked. “Well, while your pot was with us, it had a baby,” the Hodja replied, “and we thought they should stay together.” The neighbour saw no reason to argue and kept both pots.

A few weeks later, the Hodja again needed the large pot and the neighbour was happy to lend it, thinking to perhaps gain another pot in the bargain. Days passed and the Hodja did not return the pot. At last the neighbour went and asked for his pot. “Your pot?” said the Hodja. “I’m afraid it has died!” “Hodja, effendi, do you expect me to believe that a pot can die?” shouted the man. “Why not” replied the Hodja calmly. “If you believe a pot can have a baby, then surely it can also die.”

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Text and illustrations by Susan Pattie

A Saying about Planting a Tree

In 2019 the Armenian Institute published a new edition of Leon Z Surmelian’s (Լեւոն Զաւէն Սիւրմէլեան) I Ask You, Ladies and Gentlemen, a bestseller in America when it first appeared in 1945. Surmelian continued writing in English and in later years published books on Armenian folktales and the national epic “Daredevils of Sassoun”. Before moving to America, Surmelian wrote poetry in Armenian and published - to great acclaim - a slim volume of collected poems in 1924. He was then barely 19 years old.

My favourite in this collection is a short poem called “A Saying about Planting a Tree” (Ասացուածք ծառ տնկելու առթիւ). I couldn’t find an English translation of this poem, so had a go myself, with input from Susan Pattie, Levon Chilingirian and my daughter Noemi.

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Thoughts on Planting a Tree

By Levon Zaven Surmelian

Lord, bless this sapling. Look, I am planting it
In the crumbly and black soil where my ancestors lie;
I, their hulking descendent, possess this land again,
And grow and flourish under the sun, with their names on my lips.

This tree shall stretch open its great arms and soul,
Cradling the undying, sunlit breath of my forebearers;
Lord, let this lone, graceful tree be a prayer,
And let those, who hold their hamlet dear, come and hug its trunk.

The narrative of these cherished grounds, writ in ancient, majuscule script,
Brings a tear to my eye… This ancient, hoary land of mine
Has many dead and glory aplenty, and me as its wild offspring,
With fertile ponderings and swaying dreams.

As a cross for my dead departed, I planted this tree.

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By Gagik Stepan-Sarkissian

Shakespeare in Armenian

The famous Armenian actor Bedros Atamian (1849-1891) as Hamlet.

My first encounter with Shakespeare was through Hamlet. I was 5 years old. There were two Hamlets in my Armenian kindergarten. There were a further three Hamlets among my parents’ acquaintances. In all the time that I have lived in the country of the Bard I have yet to meet an Englishman called Hamlet.

What is the reason for the popularity of Shakespeare’s tragic figure – or at least his name – among Armenians in Armenia, in the former Soviet Union, and also in Iran?

According to some reports Shakespeare and his plays were first mentioned in an Armenian book published in the late 1600s. In his autobiography published in 1792, Joseph Emin (Յովսէփ Էմին), one of the pioneers of the Armenian liberation movement, mentions Shylock and Othello. Emin also knew David Garrick and refers to him in one of his letters to Elizabeth Montagu.

The first piecemeal attempts to translate Shakespeare into Armenian were made in the early 1820s in India. Excerpts were translated from The Two Gentlemen of Verona and A Midsummer Night’s Dream followed by Romeo and Juliet, Antony and Cleopatra and Julius Caesar.  Translations of complete plays started appearing in the 1850s with the publication of The Comedy of Errors in Smyrna in 1853. There followed a plethora of Armenian intellectuals, novelists and poets who tried their hand at translating Shakespeare’s most popular plays. By the end of the 20th century there were no fewer than 6 translations of King Lear and 5 translations of Hamlet with fewer renderings of other plays.

Among all the existing translations, those by Hovhannes Massehian (Յովհաննէս Մասէհեան) are considered to be by far the most refined. Born in Teheran, Massehian entered the Persian diplomatic service and served as Minister Plenipotentiary in Berlin and London before becoming the first Iranian Ambassador in Japan.

Hovhannes Masehian in Persian diplomat’s uniform

In 1916 he represented Persia at the Shakespeare tercentenary celebrations in London. Massehian began translating Shakespeare in the early 1890s and continued publishing the plays into the 1920s. Altogether he produced translations of 9 Tragedies and 5 Comedies, strangely avoiding the Histories.  

The Merchant of Venice was the first Shakespeare play performed in Armenian in 1866. The popularity of this and other plays soared among audiences in the 19th and 20th centuries wherever there was an Armenian theatre, and most particularly in the Caucasus and adjacent regions, which somewhat explains the ubiquity of Armenian Hamlets in these areas.

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 By Gagik Stepan-Sarkissian

All about AI

“Creating a new organisation is like self-taxation – you’re going to make a lot of work for yourself.  Why do it?”  My friend’s question, back in 2001, was well-meant and certainly mostly correct – but nearly twenty years later, the Armenian Institute is thriving and I can say that he was wrong on some important points.  I wasn’t alone – it was a lively and diverse team that created it and that has been true throughout its existence. It has been enjoyable work and the taxation has brought great dividends. 

Given the size of London and how dispersed the relatively few Armenians are who live there, we felt the need to create events that would attract people to come together. We especially wanted to reach those who felt outside the more traditional Armenian institutions and design programmes that would also be of interest to non-Armenians. Criticised by many for not just joining existing groups, this phase passed as it became clearer that we were creating a new niche, not trying to repeat what was already being done.

For me, this idea began while doing fieldwork when often younger people would confide that “I feel Armenian until I go to one of those events.”  It was not just the topic or the speaker that made them uneasy but a feeling they perceived that “being” Armenian meant having to fit a certain template, to have certain knowledge, to speak a certain way. 

We have tried to make all feel welcome and also to ask what people thought was missing from Armenian community life, not just community activists but also those who felt like outsiders.

Our first event was meant to demonstrate how we intended to proceed.  Prof. Khachig Tölölyan gave our first lecture (from which our first book was produced!): Redefining Diasporas: Old Approaches, New Identities. The Armenian Diaspora in an International Context.  This dynamic public intellectual demonstrated that one can be academic and accessible, serious and entertaining, a pattern that we have tried to follow. 

Two simultaneous events followed in the Maria Assumpta Centre:  a display of Armenian-related books with related talks and a massive children’s dance and storytelling performance based on the tale of Anahit.  To tell the story, choreographer and dancer Nikki Hu and musician Guy Van Duser were brought from Boston to build a team and demonstrate how they tell folktales through dance and music performed by large groups of children.  Shakeh Tchilingirian Major (dancer), Vahan Kerovpyan (percussion) and Vergine Gulbenkian (storyteller) joined them in creating the piece, teaching and then performing with the children.  An afternoon of storytelling followed the next day.

Children learning to dance: the Anahid story, 2001

Over the years the library has been a major source of delight for many, for others the varied performances and eclectic bringing together of different art and literary forms, and for many others, it is the East and West Armenian language classes that are especially appreciated.  Interactive workshops have encouraged people to use and improve their own talents and the numerous and varied lectures over the years expand our knowledge and understanding of Armenian history and culture in both particular and universal contexts.  Food and drink have been important as we gather over refreshments at events – but one of our most popular activities included the making and eating together of Manti, led by Rita Koundarjian and Sirarpie Manoogian.

AI language teachers Gagik Stepan-Sarkissian and Sona Kalenderian with Ani King Underwood at food workshop

Gagik Stepan-Sarkissian with language students

Early events included a day of learning about maps of Armenia with Rouben Galichian, Prof. Gabriella Uluhogian, and Prof. Claude Moutafian along with a children’s workshop also on maps of the historic Armenian world and diaspora. 

Another was the international conference on Identities Without Borders including the opening lecture by Prof. Lord Bhikhu Parekh and numerous speakers representing other diaspora groups such as the Basque, Jewish, Greek and others.

Layered Lives - Iranian Armenian Contemporary Arts.

Catalogue cover of Treasured Objects

We were fortunate to be invited to join Abdollah Guivian and Veronica Castor to organise a major exhibition at SOAS’s Brunei Gallery.  “Layered Lives: Iranian Armenian Identity Through Contemporary Arts” included a hung exhibition at the Gallery as well as numerous lectures and activities.

This was followed four years later by the display, also at the Brunei Gallery, of Osman Köker’s amazing postcard exhibition, “My Dear Brother: Armenians in Turkey 100 Years Ago”.

Granted the use of the upper space as well as the large lower ground floor, we created a sister exhibition with objects collected from families around London who had been able to keep special heirlooms from before the Genocide.  These became Treasured Objects, described and illustrated in the book of the same name. 

A very special event in 2013 brought together some 40 artists and performers in the basement rooms of Shoreditch Town Hall.  “Salon Mashup: Displacement and Regeneration.  Armenian perspectives of loss and resettlement” was designed as an exploration of these experiences through the arts.  Director Seta White ensured that collaboration between the invited artists made this event truly one of the most exciting highlights in its diversity, scope and impact.

AI is grateful to have been supported for these events and many others by the Arts Council England, the National Lottery Heritage Fund, St Sarkis Trust, Benlian Charity Trust and generous individual donors.

Salon Mashup: Displacement and Regeneration. Director Seta White

Commemorating the centennial of the Genocide, AI organised a concert of international stars at the Wigmore Hall including Kim Kashkashian, Levon Chilingirian, Alexander Chaushian and  Sergey Khatchatryan. The popular folk-fusion group Medz Bazar has come to London twice, playing to sell-out crowds and providing a song-writing workshop.  Evenings of films, poetry, musical performances have alternated with book launches, lectures and town hall-style discussions on Armenian affairs and history.  We are fortunate that many speakers pass through London or are here on other business and willing to give a talk while visiting.

The Sayat Nova Ensemble with leader, Levon Chilingirian. Conway Hall

Collectif Medz Bazar concert, Bush Hall, London

Taner Akçam lecture

It’s true that living in London, we really could “get by” by just attending what is already available around this amazing city. However, we don’t think of it as either/or but rather view our activities as fitting into the London social scene and cityscape, adding an Armenian element that is up to that standard.  Most importantly, I am happy that the Armenian Institute has provided a lively space where Armenian culture and history can be explored and discussed in a spirit of inclusion, seeking context, connection and relevance to our everyday lives. 

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2002 AI children's music event

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London Open House, AI hosts St Sarkis Church. Sossie Kasbarian, Pamela Young and Alexandra Sarkis

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Osman Köker's My Dear Brother postcard exhibition at the Brunei Gallery

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Dr Susan Pattie presenting ''Who Are Armenians''. Armenian Sisters' Academy, Boston, MA

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AI Sweet Sixteen concert at St. James Piccadilly

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Layered Lives flyer

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Captain Karen Balayan, Ayas Nautical Research Club, with Vanessa Galbraith at AI

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Anna Arutshyan, Judy Saryan, Ani King Underwood, Danila Terpanjian. Translating Zabel Yessayan for a new audience

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Paregentan 2008

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Maral Kerovpyan presenting Who Are the Armenians? in Manchester

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Prof. Khachig Tölölyan at reception after Armenian Diaspora Survey report and discussion

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The group of poetry readers, screening of ''Taniel''

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By Susan Pattie, AI’s director

A Bouquet of Medieval Poetry

Armenian medieval poetry is particularly vibrant, presenting a rich tapestry of religious hymns, love songs, beautiful depictions of village life and jokular songs. Its traditions go back to pre-Christian times, with Goghtan Songs and continue through the era of Sayat-Nova.

Here are my picks from some medieval poems. I chose a few uplifting ones, full of heroic tales, jokes, sunshine and love for you to read, ranging from Goghtan Songs  to Naghash Hovnatan.

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We are grateful to Movses Khorenatsi for writing down some of the Goghtan Songs․ They are snippets of epics about ancient gods, kings and queens, and one of my favourites is the story of Artashes and Satenik – a fairy-tale about the brave king and the charming princess.

Artashes (Artaxias), reigned around 200 BC, when the Alans invaded Armenia. The Armenian forces managed to capture the Alanian prince, refusing to release him. This poem below is the Alanian king’s speech to Artashes, demanding the return of his son:  

I speak to you, oh brave Artashes,
For you have defeated the brave Alan people;
Come, listen, to the bright-eyed Alan princess
And return the youth.
For it is unbecoming of heroes
To destroy the liveliness of other great warriors
Or to take and keep them in enslavement,
So that two valiant peoples
Are consigned to perpetual enmity.

Քեզ ասեմ, այր քաջ Արտաշէս,
Որ յաղթեցեր քաջ ազգին Ալանաց,
Ե՛կ հաւանեա՛ց բանից աչագեղոյ դստերս Ալանաց՝
Տալ զպատանիդ.
Զի վասն միոյ քինու ոչ է օրէն դիւցազանց՝
Այլոց դիւցազանց զարմից բառնալ զկենդանութիւն.
Կամ ծառայեցուցանելով ի ստրկաց կարգի պահել,
Եւ թշնամութիւն յաւիտենական
Ի մէջ երկոցունց ազգաց քաջաց հաստատել:

Illustration by Zabel Boyajian (Source)

After seeing the Alanian princess Satenik, Artashes falls in love and tells their king that he will conclude a treaty and return the prince if he’s allowed to marry her. The Alanian king demands in exchange ‘’thousands and tens of thousands upon tens of thousands for the maiden of the brave Alan people’’ instead, and the Armenian king abducts Satenik:

King Artashes mounted his handsome black horse,
And taking out a red leather rope studded with golden rings,
And crossing the river like a sharp-winged eagle,
And throwing his red leather rope studded with golden rings,
Cast it upon the waist of the Alanian maiden,
And this hurt the delicate maiden's waist,
Quickly taking her back to his camp.

Հեծաւ արի արքայն Արտաշէս ի սեաւն գեղեցիկ,
Եւ հանեալ զոսկէօղ շիկափոկ պարանն,
Եւ անցեալ որպէս զարծուի սրաթեւ ընդ գետն,
Եւ ձգեալ զոսկէօղ շիկափոկ պարանն
Ընկէց ի մէջք օրիորդին Ալանաց.
Եւ շատ ցաւեցոյց զմէջք փափուկ օրիորդին,
Արագ հասուցանելով ի բանակն իւր:

Illustration by Zabel Boyajian (Source)

Of course, they married, and had a wedding so big and rich that gold rained on Artashes and pearls on Satenik. The king and queen lived happily ever after and made Armenia peaceful and prosperous, and all we have to remember them are these exciting and poetic passages.

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Gospel Book, Minaturist Grigor, 14-15 century (Source)

Many people are familiar the name of Grigor Narekatsi (Գրիգոր Նարեկացի) (c. 950 – 1003/1011), a poet, a monk, a theologian – and the author of one of the most philosophical and confessional poems, Book of Lamentations (Narek). But along with deep and dark soul-searching, Narekatsi has a series of Songs, singing of the beauty and nature around him. I’ve picked ‘’A Birthday Melody’’ (Մեղեդի ծննդյան), as it’s such glorious description of female beauty - Virgin Mary in his case. Reading this, you feel you are observing a joyful Renaissance artwork, painted in deep, vibrant colours, describing her eyes of laughing seas, pomegranate and laurel cheeks, mouth as rose petals and gold, blue and red silk gown…

What I also love about this is Narekatsi’s playful use of alliterations, using the letter ‘ծ’ almost to make us hear the laughter of the morning sea and the woman he celebrates.

Here is a snippet from the modern Eastern Armenian translation, and you can read the full original and Aram Tolegian’s excellent translation here.

Ծավալվել են աչքերը ծով
Առավոտվա ծովի վրա ծիծաղախիտ,
Ինչպես երկու փայլակնաձեւ արեգակներ.
Շողն է նման լուսացնցուղ այգաբացի:
Թափվում էին այտերից վառ՝
Դափնեվարդի ու նռնենու ծաղկաթերթեր.
Գեղաշիտակ իրանից սիրտն էր կարկաչում
Հուզավարար կենսատու սեր:
Կամար կապած թեւերը գիրգ՝
Երգում էր նա ախորժալուր ու գեղգեղուն,
Ելեւէջներն հյուսում իրար.
Շարժվում հանդարտ ու ճեմում էր թիկնեթեկին:
Բերանն երկթերթ, շրթունքներից վարդն էր կաթում.
Լեզվի տավիղն էր քաղցրերգում հուզումնահորդ.
Շողում էին նույն կենսավառ
Սիրով չքնաղ ու գինեթույր
Ծամերն իրենց գիսակներով խոպոպավոր:

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Nerses Shnorhali, Poems, 1644 (Source)

Nerses the Gracious or Nerses Shnorhali (Սուրբ Ներսէս Դ. Կլայեցի կամ Ներսէս Շնորհալի) was an incredibly important presence as the Catholicos of Armenia in the 12th century, a poet, a musician, a theologian and a writer.

He is considered the founder of the Cilician school of poetry, and is also famous for his fun and playful riddles for children. There is a very childlike, innocent quality in his hymn I picked – “Morning Light” (Առաւօտ լուսոյ). Its simplicity and music are so enticing; he made the hymn even more interesting by fitting it into the Armenian alphabet – every verse, comprising of 3 lines, starts with the next letter. Here is a short snippet with translation from Anthology of Armenian Poetry. You can read the whole thing here and of course listen to the hymn here.

Առաւօտ լուսոյ,
Արեգակն արդար,
Առ իս լոյս ծագեա:

Բըղխումն ի Հօրէ,
Բըղխեա ի հոգւոյս,
Բան քեզ ի հաճոյս:

Գանձդ ողորմութեան,
Գանձիդ ծածկելոյ
Գըտող զիս արա:

Դուռն ողորմութեան,
Դաւանողիս բաց,
Դասեցո վերնոցն:

Ascending sun, ascending light,
Awakening the morning,
Almighty justice, let dawn light in me.

Born of the Father,
Brighten my soul.
Bring forth the word.

Christ Jesus,
Compassionate,
Concealed treasure.

Doorway of mercy,
Door to the heavens,
Disclose the true light.

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Hymnal, Adam and Eve, Constantinople 1678 (Source)

My next poet is Nahapet Kuchak, the bard of Van, our first ashough (minstrel) who lived in the 16th century and changed the course of Armenian poetry dramatically.

His poems are called hairens, which are quatrains with 15 syllables, and talk about love and yearning, homeland and exile.

I picked two of his love hairens, the first one probably being one of his most lyrical and tender works, creating an incredibly vivid image of love.

Ես աչք ու դուն լուս, հոգի՛, առանց լուս աչքըն խաւարի,
Ես ձուկ ու դուն ջուր, հոգի՛, առանց ջուր ձուկըն մեռանի։
Երբ զձուկն ի ջըրէն հանեն ՚ւ ի այլ ջուր ձըգեն, կու ապրի,
Երբ զիս ի քենէ զատեն, քան զմեռնիլն այլ ճար չիլինի։

I am the eye, you are the light, my love. Blind without light is the eye.
I am a fish, the water you, my love. Without water fish must die.
If you pull a fish from the river and throw it in another it will live -
but if I am parted from you, I'll die without hope of reprieve.

This next hairen - poem is wonderfully lyrical and exciting as well, talking about his beloved who he likens to an almond blossom, but he’s also full of earthly desires of sharing some wine and kisses with her too:

Ա՜յ իմ նըշենի ծաղիկ, ծաղկեցար ու դարձար ի նուշ.
Բերանդ է աղուշ մաղուշ, պըռկըներդ է ամրաւ ու նուշ.
Զարախդ որ յափիդ ունիս՝ դու խըմէ՛ որ ասեմ՝ Անո՜ւշ.
Պագնե՜մ զայդ բերնիդ բոլորն որ գինւոյն հոտըն գայ անուշ։

O my almost blossom, you bloomed and became delicious,
Your mouth is honey sweet, your lips rich as almond and dates,
Drink from the cup of wine you hold, that I may say sweet touches sweet.
O I shall kiss all around your mouth, whence comes the fragrance of wine.

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Naghash Hovnatan (Source)

Naghash Hovnatan  was an incredibly gifted artist and while we know very little about his life (he lived in Nakhichevan in the 17-18th centuries), we know that he was a poet, a musician, a minstrel, a painter and illustrator of manuscripts.

When rereading his works, I came across this playful poem – “Song About the Cat Playing Dead Who the Mice Want to Bury” ( Տաղ ի վերայ սուտ մեռեալ կատուին, զոր մկներն տանին թաղեն).

It’s so rare to read something so funny and different from our medieval poems, so this delightful piece is my final choice. The first verse describes the cat, who plays dead and the mice are celebrating, stealing food and baking bread. Then he moves to the cat’s perspective and in the rest of the poem we hear the cat plotting what it is going to do to the mice when he wakes up from his pretend death (make Karabakh slippers from their skin and drive the rest of  Marzvan!). And of course, if you read it aloud, it’s easy to guess that Hovnatan was an ashugh too and these are lyrics to a song. Read an except below and the whole thing here. 

Կատուն մեռաւ. ափսոս ու վա՜խ.
Մկներն այսօր խիստ են ուրախ.
Թէ որ յանկարծ վեր կենայ սաղ,
Մկներն կանէ արիւնշաղախ:

«Ես կատու եմ, ոտքս արագ,
Մկանց ես խիստ եմ հակառակ,
Ահա ամենքդ հասարակ,
Զձեզ առնելոց եմ խայտառակ:

Ես կատու եմ՝ մկան եաղի,
Սրտումս դրել եմ դաղի՝
Չարուխ շինեմ Ղարաբաղի,
Ով որ եկել է ինձ թաղի:

Իմ մուշտակս կարմիր նախշուն,
Քուրքչիներ ունեմ .........
Մեր թաւանին մկներն անհուն,
Ցերեկն քուն, գիշերն արթուն:

Մկունք բերին՝ ալիւր, եղ, խին,
Որ հոգոյս համար հաց թխին.
Հիմա կոխեմ ձեզ մէջ ցխին,
Ամենն սեւ անեմ ձեր գլխին»:

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By Tato Ayvazyan, AI Director

Our New Grant

As we were formulating our National Lottery Heritage Fund application over the summer, we wanted to anchor our proposed activities in three or four clear ‘themes’. These themes needed to reflect AI’s ethos and mission, give us clear goals to work towards… and be of interest to our audiences!

So where better to start than our previous successful events and activities over the last 19 years? We thought of our Town Hall Meetings about Armenian women’s participation in society, and book launches of the reprints of Zabel Yessayan’s works. We thought about our immensely successful ‘Salon Mashup: Displacement + Regeneration’, and all of the lectures, workshops, and films we have hosted about refugees, displacement, and migration over the years. We thought about our annual Hrant Dink commemoration, which so often involves acknowledging the ways in which the Armenian community is intricately connected to neighbouring communities, past and present. And we thought of all our poetry readings, book launches, graphic fiction workshops, and our own publications which celebrate Armenian literary heritage.

From there, it was easy (especially as many of these themes overlap with my own research as a historian of the Armenian genocide into gender, absorption, and displacement during the genocide). Our four themes became:

• Exploring Gender (understanding identities, histories, and heritage)

• Migration, Displacement and Refugees (understanding Armenian and other communities’ experiences)

• Neighbours, Historic and Present (examining shared histories, diversity, and interconnections)

• Literary Heritage (understanding its continuing influence on identity and heritage)

Over the next two and a half years, our NLHF-funded activities will be exploring these themes across a variety of formats – Diaspora Forums, film series, workshops, open mic events, and book clubs. We want to challenge and open new conversations, as well as have fun doing so – we hope you will join us!

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A more detailed version of this article is included in the latest issue of Bardez .